Emergentism

Emergentism is a family of theories holding that linguistic knowledge, including grammar, is not innate but emerges from the learner's cumulative experience with language use. Nick Ellis (2002, 2006) and Brian MacWhinney (2001) are the principal SLA proponents. The approach stands in direct opposition to nativist accounts that posit an innate Language Acquisition Device.

Core Claims

Language acquisition is "the gradual strengthening of associations between co-occurring elements of the language" (N. Ellis, 2002). There is no separate grammar module; what looks like rule-governed behavior is the product of statistical regularities extracted from massive amounts of input. Key principles:

1. Frequency drives learning: processing is "intimately tuned to input frequency." High-frequency constructions are acquired earlier and processed faster.
2. Exemplar-based: learners store specific instances (exemplars) and generalise from accumulated tokens, rather than acquiring abstract rules first.
3. Probabilistic knowledge: fluent performance exploits statistical patterns (collocational strength, transitional probabilities, construction frequency) rather than categorical rules.
4. No innate grammar: apparent universals emerge from constraints on human cognition, communication, and the nature of the physical world, not from a genetic endowment for language.

Connection to Usage-Based Theory

Emergentism overlaps substantially with Usage-Based Theory (Tomasello, 2003; Bybee, 2010). Both emphasise frequency, exemplar storage, and the gradual abstraction of patterns from use. The main difference is emphasis: emergentism foregrounds the computational/connectionist mechanisms, while usage-based theory foregrounds the social-communicative context of use.

MacWhinney's Competition Model

MacWhinney's Competition Model (1987, 2001) proposed that learners track multiple probabilistic cues (word order, morphology, animacy, stress) and weight them according to their reliability and frequency in the input. L1 and L2 cue weightings compete, predicting specific transfer patterns. This is a concrete emergentist architecture applied to cross-linguistic SLA.

Implications

If language emerges from usage, then maximizing meaningful exposure and use, not rule presentation, is the primary driver of acquisition. This aligns with TBLT and challenges PPP's assumption that explicit rule presentation is the starting point for learning.

References

• Ellis, N.C. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 143–188.
• MacWhinney, B. (2001). The Competition Model: The input, the context, and the brain. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge University Press.
• Bybee, J. (2010). Language, Usage and Cognition. Cambridge University Press.