Pushed Output
Pushed output is Swain's (1985, 1995) concept that acquisition is facilitated when learners are pushed beyond their current competence to produce language that is "not only conveyed, but conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately." It extends the Output Hypothesis by specifying the conditions under which production becomes acquisitional rather than merely communicative.
Origin
Swain's research in Canadian French immersion programs revealed a paradox: students who received years of comprehensible input developed native-like receptive skills but retained persistent grammatical inaccuracies in production. The problem was not insufficient input but insufficient demand on output — students could communicate successfully without being pushed toward target-like precision. They rarely produced utterances longer than a clause.
Three Functions of Pushed Output
| Function | Mechanism | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Noticing/triggering | Producing language makes learners notice gaps in their Interlanguage | Trying to explain a process, realizing they lack the passive voice |
| Hypothesis testing | Output allows learners to try out linguistic hypotheses and receive feedback | Using a new structure and seeing if the interlocutor understands |
| Metalinguistic reflection | Collaborative output tasks prompt conscious analysis of language | Dictogloss, collaborative writing |
Distinction from General Output
Not all production counts as pushed output. Formulaic responses, one-word answers, and communication that succeeds despite errors do not push the learner. The key is that the communicative context demands greater precision, complexity, or appropriacy than the learner can comfortably produce — creating productive struggle that drives interlanguage development.
Classroom Implications
Tasks that generate pushed output include dictogloss, collaborative writing, information-gap tasks requiring precise description, and any activity where vague or inaccurate language leads to task failure. This is a core rationale for TBLT over PPP: well-designed tasks create natural demand for pushed output.
References
- Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition. Newbury House.
- Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press.