CMC

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) refers to human communication conducted through digital channels: email, text chat, instant messaging, discussion forums, video conferencing, and social media. In SLA research, CMC has been investigated as an environment for language learning that shares features with face-to-face interaction while offering distinctive affordances.

Two Modes

Mode	Description	Examples	ELT affordances
Synchronous (SCMC)	Real-time communication	Live chat, video calls, instant messaging	Approximates conversational interaction; promotes fluency and negotiation of meaning
Asynchronous (ACMC)	Delayed communication	Email, forums, wikis, recorded video	Allows processing time; promotes accuracy and reflection; accommodates different time zones

CMC and SLA Theory

CMC research draws on two major theoretical frameworks:

• Interaction Hypothesis — Long's (1996) hypothesis predicts that negotiation of meaning in interaction facilitates acquisition. CMC, particularly text-based SCMC, generates high levels of negotiation — clarification requests, confirmation checks, comprehension checks — comparable to or exceeding face-to-face interaction
• Sociocultural Theory — CMC creates spaces for collaborative dialogue and scaffolding, with written records that make the mediation process visible

Meta-analytic evidence (Lin 2014; Ziegler 2016) shows a positive, medium-sized effect of CMC on L2 development. Text-based SCMC may be particularly beneficial because it combines the interactional pressure of synchronous communication with the visual permanence of written text — learners can see their output and notice gaps.

Distinctive Features for Language Learning

• Textual record — written CMC creates a permanent trace of interaction, enabling Noticing and self-correction
• Reduced anxiety — many learners report lower anxiety in CMC than in face-to-face interaction, particularly for speaking-anxious students
• Equalised participation — CMC can reduce dominance patterns found in face-to-face classroom interaction
• Authentic communication — telecollaboration and tandem learning connect learners with speakers worldwide
• Focus on form — the slower pace of written CMC gives learners time to attend to form during meaning-focused communication

Moderating Variables

Research identifies several factors affecting CMC's impact on learning:

• Proficiency level — lower-proficiency learners may benefit more from CMC interaction
• Task type — tasks requiring information exchange and negotiation generate more language-related episodes
• Interlocutor type — NS-NNS, NNS-NNS, and teacher-learner pairings produce different interaction patterns
• Modality — text, audio, and video CMC each offer different affordances

Key References

• Kern, R. (1995). Restructuring classroom interaction with networked computers. Modern Language Journal, 79(4), 457–476.
• Warschauer, M. (1997). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 470–481.
• Lin, H. (2014). Establishing an empirical link between CMC and SLA: A meta-analysis. Language Learning & Technology, 18(3), 120–147.
• Ziegler, N. (2016). Synchronous computer-mediated communication and interaction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(3), 553–586.