Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive strategies are mental operations that directly manipulate incoming information or language material to enhance learning and performance. Unlike metacognitive strategies, which manage the learning process, cognitive strategies operate on the content itself — transforming, practising, analysing, or storing L2 data. They are classified as direct strategies in Oxford's (1990) taxonomy and as one of three strategy types in O'Malley and Chamot's (1990) framework.
Major Cognitive Strategies
Practice Strategies
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Repetition | Imitating or rehearsing language items | Repeating new vocabulary aloud; re-reading a text |
| Resourcing | Using reference materials to support learning | Consulting a dictionary, grammar book, or corpus |
| Rehearsal | Practising language in preparation for real use | Mentally rehearsing a presentation; scripting a dialogue |
Processing Strategies
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Note-taking | Writing down key information during input | Recording new vocabulary with definitions and examples |
| Summarising | Creating condensed versions of input | Writing a summary of a lecture or reading passage |
| Deduction | Applying a known rule to understand or produce language | Using past tense rule to produce "she walked" |
| Induction | Inferring rules or patterns from examples | Noticing "-tion" makes nouns from verbs after seeing several examples |
| Translation | Using L1 as a base for understanding or producing L2 | Mentally translating a sentence to check meaning |
| Transfer | Applying L1 knowledge or previously learned L2 knowledge | Using Spanish vocabulary knowledge to guess Portuguese words |
Elaboration Strategies
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Imagery | Creating mental images to represent information | Visualising a scene to remember vocabulary |
| Keyword method | Associating a new L2 word with a similar-sounding L1 word linked to an image | Spanish "pato" (duck) → "pot" → image of a duck on a pot |
| Elaboration | Relating new information to prior knowledge or personal experience | Connecting new grammar to a similar L1 structure |
| Grouping | Classifying or categorising language items | Organising vocabulary by topic, word family, or collocation |
| Contextualisation | Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful context | Creating a sentence using a new word |
Relationship to Cognitive Theory
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) grounded cognitive strategies in Anderson's ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) theory. In this framework:
- Declarative stage — Learner knows facts about the language (rules, vocabulary). Cognitive strategies like note-taking, deduction, and grouping operate here.
- Procedural stage — Knowledge is applied in practice. Strategies like repetition, rehearsal, and contextualisation support proceduralisation.
- Automatic stage — Performance becomes fluent and effortless. Strategies are no longer consciously deployed.
This maps directly onto Skill Acquisition Theory (DeKeyser, 2007): cognitive strategies are the tools learners use to move from declarative knowledge to automaticity.
Research Evidence
O'Malley et al. (1985) — In one of the earliest strategy instruction studies, ESL students trained in cognitive strategies (note-taking, grouping, imagery) for vocabulary learning significantly outperformed a control group on vocabulary tests.
Chamot & O'Malley (1994) — Developed the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), integrating cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction into content-based ESL. Evaluations showed improvements in both language proficiency and academic content learning.
Cohen (1998) — Distinguished between learning strategies (used to learn new material) and use strategies (used to deploy already-known material in communication). Many cognitive strategies serve both functions: rehearsal helps learning and is used before real-time production.
Nassaji (2003) — Studied L2 learners' strategies for inferring unknown word meanings during reading. Successful inferences were associated with the use of multiple cognitive strategies (morphological analysis, contextual clues, world knowledge) rather than reliance on a single strategy.
Mizumoto & Takeuchi (2009) — Strategy instruction in vocabulary learning (keyword method, semantic mapping, contextualisation) improved Japanese EFL university students' vocabulary retention compared to a control group studying with self-selected strategies.
Why It Matters for ELT
- Cognitive strategies are the most visible and teachable strategies. Learners can be shown specific techniques — note-taking formats, summarising methods, grouping principles — and practise them immediately.
- Pair with metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies alone are insufficient: learners also need the executive layer (planning, monitoring, evaluating) to deploy cognitive strategies appropriately. The combination is what characterises the good language learner.
- Not all strategies work for all learners. Strategy effectiveness depends on proficiency level, task type, learning style, and L1 background. Offer a range and let learners discover what works for them through Learner training.
- Vocabulary benefits most. The strongest evidence for cognitive strategy instruction comes from vocabulary learning studies — keyword method, semantic mapping, word cards, contextualised practice.
- Strategy orchestration matters. Griffiths (2013) found that successful learners do not just use more strategies — they combine them flexibly. Teaching strategy combinations (e.g., predict before reading + note key words + summarise after) is more effective than teaching individual strategies in isolation.
References
- Chamot, A. U., & O'Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA model: Strategies for ELL student success. In R. Rodriguez et al. (Eds.), Compendium of Readings in Bilingual Education. Texas Association for Bilingual Education.
- Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Longman.
- DeKeyser, R. (2007). Practice in a Second Language. Cambridge University Press.
- Griffiths, C. (2013). The Strategy Factor in Successful Language Learning. Multilingual Matters.
- Mizumoto, A., & Takeuchi, O. (2009). Examining the effectiveness of explicit instruction of vocabulary learning strategies with Japanese EFL university students. Language Teaching Research, 13(4), 425–449.
- Nassaji, H. (2003). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with success in L2 lexical inferencing. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 645–670.
- O'Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
- O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., Russo, R. P., & Küpper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19(3), 557–584.
- Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Newbury House.