Cognitive strategies are mental operations that directly manipulate incoming information or language material to enhance learning and performance. Unlike metacognitive strategies, which manage the learning process, cognitive strategies operate on the content itself: transforming, practising, analysing, or storing L2 data. They are classified as direct strategies in Oxford's (1990) taxonomy and as one of three strategy types in O'Malley and Chamot's (1990) framework.
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Repetition | Imitating or rehearsing language items | Repeating new vocabulary aloud; re-reading a text |
| Resourcing | Using reference materials to support learning | Consulting a dictionary, grammar book, or corpus |
| Rehearsal | Practising language in preparation for real use | Mentally rehearsing a presentation; scripting a dialogue |
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Note-taking | Writing down key information during input | Recording new vocabulary with definitions and examples |
| Summarising | Creating condensed versions of input | Writing a summary of a lecture or reading passage |
| Deduction | Applying a known rule to understand or produce language | Using past tense rule to produce "she walked" |
| Induction | Inferring rules or patterns from examples | Noticing "-tion" makes nouns from verbs after seeing several examples |
| Translation | Using L1 as a base for understanding or producing L2 | Mentally translating a sentence to check meaning |
| Transfer | Applying L1 knowledge or previously learned L2 knowledge | Using Spanish vocabulary knowledge to guess Portuguese words |
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Imagery | Creating mental images to represent information | Visualising a scene to remember vocabulary |
| Keyword method | Associating a new L2 word with a similar-sounding L1 word linked to an image | Spanish "pato" (duck) → "pot" → image of a duck on a pot |
| Elaboration | Relating new information to prior knowledge or personal experience | Connecting new grammar to a similar L1 structure |
| Grouping | Classifying or categorising language items | Organising vocabulary by topic, word family, or collocation |
| Contextualisation | Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful context | Creating a sentence using a new word |
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) grounded cognitive strategies in Anderson's ACT (Adaptive Control of Thought) theory. In this framework:
This maps directly onto Skill Acquisition Theory (DeKeyser, 2007): cognitive strategies are the tools learners use to move from declarative knowledge to automaticity.
O'Malley et al. (1985): In one of the earliest strategy instruction studies, ESL students trained in cognitive strategies (note-taking, grouping, imagery) for vocabulary learning significantly outperformed a control group on vocabulary tests.
Chamot & O'Malley (1994): Developed the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), integrating cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction into content-based ESL. Evaluations showed improvements in both language proficiency and academic content learning.
Cohen (1998): Distinguished between learning strategies (used to learn new material) and use strategies (used to deploy already-known material in communication). Many cognitive strategies serve both functions: rehearsal helps learning and is used before real-time production.
Nassaji (2003): Studied L2 learners' strategies for inferring unknown word meanings during reading. Successful inferences were associated with the use of multiple cognitive strategies (morphological analysis, contextual clues, world knowledge) rather than reliance on a single strategy.
Mizumoto & Takeuchi (2009): Strategy instruction in vocabulary learning (keyword method, semantic mapping, contextualisation) improved Japanese EFL university students' vocabulary retention compared to a control group studying with self-selected strategies.