Learner training
Learner training is the systematic instruction designed to help learners discover, practise, and refine effective strategies for learning a language. It aims to develop learners' awareness of themselves as learners, their understanding of the learning process, and their ability to select and deploy appropriate strategies. The goal is to produce more autonomous, self-regulated learners who can continue learning effectively beyond the classroom.
Key Definitions
| Theorist | Definition | Emphasis |
|---|---|---|
| Wenden (1991) | Preparing learners to take responsibility for their own learning by developing metacognitive knowledge and strategic competence | Metacognitive awareness; learner beliefs |
| Ellis & Sinclair (1989) | "Training learners in the use of learning strategies in order to improve their learning effectiveness" | Practical strategy instruction |
| Oxford (1990) | Strategy instruction integrated into regular language teaching to expand learners' strategic repertoire | Classroom integration |
| Dickinson (1992) | Preparing learners for self-directed learning through strategy awareness and practice | Transition to autonomy |
Wenden's Framework
Wenden (1991) argued that effective learner training addresses three components:
| Component | Description | Example activities |
|---|---|---|
| Metacognitive knowledge | What learners know and believe about learning — about themselves, about the task, about strategies | Beliefs questionnaires, strategy inventories, group discussion of "what works" |
| Metacognitive strategies | Executive processes: planning, monitoring, evaluating | Pre-task planning sheets, during-task self-monitoring checklists, post-task reflection journals |
| Cognitive strategies | Direct operations on learning material | Teaching note-taking techniques, vocabulary recording methods, reading strategies |
Wenden emphasized that learner beliefs about language learning (e.g., "grammar is the most important thing," "you can only learn by living abroad") powerfully shape strategy choices and must be surfaced and examined as part of learner training.
Ellis & Sinclair's Learning to Learn English
Ellis and Sinclair (1989) produced one of the earliest practical learner training coursebooks. Their approach:
- Awareness-raising — Help learners understand their own learning style, preferences, strengths, and weaknesses through questionnaires and self-reflection.
- Strategy presentation — Introduce specific strategies with explanations of why and when they help.
- Strategy practice — Provide structured tasks where learners apply strategies to real language learning activities.
- Evaluation — Learners assess whether the strategy helped, and whether they would use it again.
This four-stage cycle became a template for subsequent learner training programs and textbook supplements.
Approaches to Learner Training
| Approach | Description | Advantages | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Separate course | Dedicated "learning to learn" sessions apart from language lessons | Focused attention on strategies | Transfer to language classes may be weak |
| Integrated | Strategy instruction embedded in regular language lessons | Immediate, contextualised practice; strategies linked to real tasks | Requires teacher skill and planning; takes lesson time |
| Informed | Strategies taught with explicit explanation of why, when, and how to use them | Promotes metacognitive awareness | More time-consuming than blind training |
| Blind | Strategies practised without explicit rationale | Quick to implement | Learners may not transfer strategies to new tasks |
Research consistently favours informed, integrated approaches (Chamot, 2004; Plonsky, 2011).
The CALLA Model
Chamot and O'Malley's Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is the most developed model of integrated learner training:
| Phase | Teacher role | Learner role |
|---|---|---|
| Preparation | Activate prior knowledge of strategies | Identify strategies already used |
| Presentation | Model the strategy; think aloud | Attend to the demonstration |
| Practice | Provide tasks requiring strategy use | Apply the strategy with support |
| Evaluation | Guide reflection on strategy effectiveness | Assess whether the strategy helped |
| Expansion | Encourage transfer to new tasks | Apply strategies independently in new contexts |
Research Evidence
Wenden (1991) — Documented that unsuccessful learners often held counterproductive beliefs (e.g., "memorising vocabulary lists is the best way to learn") and that surfacing and challenging these beliefs was as important as teaching specific strategies.
Chamot (2004) — Reviewed strategy instruction research across two decades and concluded that explicit strategy instruction is effective, particularly when: (a) integrated into content, (b) extended over time, and (c) accompanied by metacognitive reflection.
Plonsky (2011) — Meta-analysis of 61 strategy instruction studies found an overall medium effect (d = 0.49). Instruction was more effective for: younger learners, lower-proficiency learners, and studies using informed (explicit) instruction.
Hassan et al. (2005) — Implemented a learner training program for EFL reading in Egypt. Students who received explicit strategy instruction (predicting, questioning, summarising, clarifying) outperformed controls on reading comprehension tests and reported greater confidence as readers.
Nakatani (2005) — Trained Japanese EFL learners in communication strategies (asking for clarification, paraphrasing, checking comprehension). The trained group showed significantly improved oral communication test scores and increased willingness to communicate.
Macaro (2001) — Strategy instruction study with French learners of English writing: the trained group improved in writing quality, and crucially, showed evidence of strategy transfer to untrained writing tasks.
Why It Matters for ELT
- Learner training bridges the gap between teaching and autonomy. You cannot simply tell learners to "be autonomous" — they need explicit instruction in how to learn effectively.
- Start with awareness. Before teaching strategies, help learners articulate their current approaches, beliefs, and goals. Strategy inventories (Oxford's SILL or simplified versions) and group discussions are useful starting points.
- Model, don't just tell. Demonstrate strategies through think-alouds: show learners what planning a writing task looks like, how to monitor comprehension during reading, how to evaluate a completed task.
- Integrate into regular lessons. The evidence strongly favours embedding strategy instruction within language tasks rather than teaching it as a separate module.
- Build evaluation habits. After every major task, allocate 2–3 minutes for learners to reflect: What worked? What was difficult? What would I do differently? This builds the metacognitive evaluation habit.
- Challenge unhelpful beliefs. Many learners believe that grammar rules, word lists, or translation are the only ways to learn. Surfacing and gently challenging these beliefs through evidence and experience is part of learner training.
- Learner training is especially important for exam preparation. IELTS, TOEIC, and Cambridge exam courses benefit enormously from explicit instruction in test-taking strategies, time management, and self-monitoring during practice tests.
References
- Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 14–26.
- Dickinson, L. (1992). Learner Autonomy 2: Learner Training for Language Learning. Authentik.
- Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training. Cambridge University Press.
- Hassan, X., Macaro, E., Mason, D., Nye, G., Smith, P., & Vanderplank, R. (2005). Strategy training in language learning — a systematic review of available research. In Research Evidence in Education Library. EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
- Macaro, E. (2001). Learning Strategies in Foreign and Second Language Classrooms. Continuum.
- Nakatani, Y. (2005). The effects of awareness-raising training on oral communication strategy use. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 76–91.
- O'Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
- Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Newbury House.
- Plonsky, L. (2011). The effectiveness of second language strategy instruction: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 61(4), 993–1038.
- Wenden, A. L. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. Prentice Hall.