Code-Switching
Code-switching (CS) is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties within a single conversation, sentence, or utterance. In ELT, it refers most commonly to teachers or learners shifting between the L1 and the target language in the classroom. The term was introduced into sociolinguistics by Gumperz (1982) and has since been studied from linguistic, sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and pedagogical perspectives.
Types of Code-Switching
By linguistic level
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Inter-sentential | Switching between sentences | I finished my homework. Bài tập khó quá! (The homework was so hard!) |
| Intra-sentential | Switching within a sentence (also called code-mixing) | She gave me a cái bút to write with |
| Tag-switching | Inserting a tag or filler from one language into an utterance in another | That's interesting, phải không? |
By function (Blom & Gumperz 1972)
| Type | Trigger | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Situational | A change in the external situation — setting, participant, topic | Switching from English to Vietnamese when the school director enters |
| Metaphorical | No situational change — the switch itself signals a change in tone, solidarity, or stance | A teacher switches to L1 mid-lesson to signal intimacy or humor |
By social function (Gumperz 1982)
Gumperz identified CS as a contextualization cue — a signal that helps listeners interpret the social meaning of an utterance. He catalogued several functions:
- Quotation — reporting someone's words in the original language
- Addressee specification — directing speech to a particular listener
- Interjection — inserting an exclamation from the other language
- Reiteration — repeating a message in the other language for emphasis or clarification
- Message qualification — elaborating or commenting on what was said
- Personalization vs objectivization — switching to signal personal involvement or detachment
Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model (1993)
Carol Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model explains code-switching as a rational social choice. Every social situation has an unmarked code (the expected, default language) and marked codes (unexpected choices). Speakers switch to a marked code to signal something: solidarity, authority, distance, humor, or identity negotiation.
This framework predicts that bilinguals do not switch randomly — their choices are strategic, even when unconscious.
Code-Switching in the ELT Classroom
Teacher code-switching
Teachers in multilingual or monolingual-L1 classrooms frequently switch to the learners' L1 for:
| Purpose | Example |
|---|---|
| Explaining grammar | Using L1 to clarify a complex grammatical distinction |
| Managing the classroom | L1 for discipline, procedures, time management |
| Building rapport | L1 for humor, empathy, shared cultural references |
| Checking comprehension | Quick L1 translation to verify understanding |
| Defining vocabulary | L1 equivalent when Circumlocution would take too long |
Learner code-switching
Learners switch to L1 for:
- Communication strategy — filling a gap when the L2 word is unknown (a form of Circumlocution alternative)
- Private speech — thinking through a problem in L1 before producing in L2
- Peer collaboration — negotiating meaning with classmates during group work
- Identity — signaling group membership or resistance to target-language norms
The Debate: L1 Use in the Classroom
The role of L1 in the ELT classroom has been debated for over a century:
| Position | Argument | Associated with |
|---|---|---|
| English-only | Maximum L2 exposure drives acquisition; L1 use is a crutch | Audiolingual Method, Direct Method, strong CLT |
| Judicious L1 use | Strategic L1 use saves time, reduces anxiety, and supports comprehension — but should be principled and limited | Atkinson (1987), Cook (2001), Nation (2003) |
| Translanguaging | Bilinguals have one integrated linguistic repertoire; separating languages is artificial | Garcia & Wei (2014). See Translanguaging |
The current consensus in applied linguistics leans toward principled L1 use: the L1 is a resource, not a problem, but its use should be strategic and deliberate rather than a default. Research (e.g., Macaro 2009) suggests that teachers who plan their L1 use achieve better outcomes than those who either ban it entirely or use it unthinkingly.
Code-Switching vs Translanguaging
The relationship between these two concepts is debated. See Translanguaging for the full discussion. Briefly:
- Code-switching assumes two separate language systems that the speaker alternates between.
- Translanguaging (Garcia & Wei 2014) rejects the separation, viewing the bilingual speaker as having one integrated repertoire from which they draw flexibly.
In practice, the observable behavior is often the same — the theoretical framing differs.
Why It Matters for Teaching
- Do not treat L1 use as failure. Code-switching is a natural feature of bilingual communication, not a sign of L2 deficiency. Gumperz (1982) demonstrated that skilled code-switchers have greater linguistic competence, not less.
- Be strategic about L1 in class. Plan when and why you use L1 rather than defaulting to it. Keep L1 use for high-value purposes (explaining abstract concepts, building rapport) rather than as a substitute for grading your language.
- Maximize L2 input. While principled L1 use is valuable, the classroom may be learners' primary or only source of L2 input. Excessive code-switching reduces the quantity and quality of that input.
- Teach communication strategies. Learners who code-switch because they lack L2 words benefit from learning Circumlocution and other achievement strategies that keep them in the target language.
Key References
- Gumperz, J.J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press.
- Blom, J.P. & Gumperz, J.J. (1972). Social meaning in linguistic structure: Code-switching in Norway. In J.J. Gumperz & D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in Sociolinguistics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Codeswitching. Oxford University Press.
- Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402–423.
- Macaro, E. (2009). Teacher use of codeswitching in the second language classroom. In M. Turnbull & J. Dailey-O'Cain (Eds.), First Language Use in Second and Foreign Language Learning. Multilingual Matters.
- Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource? ELT Journal, 41(4), 241–247.
- Garcia, O. & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. Palgrave Macmillan.