Code-switching (CS) is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties within a single conversation, sentence, or utterance. In ELT, it refers most commonly to teachers or learners shifting between the L1 and the target language in the classroom. The term was introduced into sociolinguistics by Gumperz (1982) and has since been studied from linguistic, sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and pedagogical perspectives.
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Inter-sentential | Switching between sentences | I finished my homework. Bài tập khó quá! (The homework was so hard!) |
| Intra-sentential | Switching within a sentence (also called code-mixing) | She gave me a cái bút to write with |
| Tag-switching | Inserting a tag or filler from one language into an utterance in another | That's interesting, phải không? |
| Type | Trigger | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Situational | A change in the external situation: setting, participant, topic | Switching from English to Vietnamese when the school director enters |
| Metaphorical | No situational change: the switch itself signals a change in tone, solidarity, or stance | A teacher switches to L1 mid-lesson to signal intimacy or humor |
Gumperz identified CS as a contextualization cue, a signal that helps listeners interpret the social meaning of an utterance. He catalogued several functions:
Carol Myers-Scotton's Markedness Model explains code-switching as a rational social choice. Every social situation has an unmarked code (the expected, default language) and marked codes (unexpected choices). Speakers switch to a marked code to signal something: solidarity, authority, distance, humor, or identity negotiation.
This framework predicts that bilinguals do not switch randomly; their choices are strategic, even when unconscious.
Teachers in multilingual or monolingual-L1 classrooms frequently switch to the learners' L1 for:
| Purpose | Example |
|---|---|
| Explaining grammar | Using L1 to clarify a complex grammatical distinction |
| Managing the classroom | L1 for discipline, procedures, time management |
| Building rapport | L1 for humor, empathy, shared cultural references |
| Checking comprehension | Quick L1 translation to verify understanding |
| Defining vocabulary | L1 equivalent when Circumlocution would take too long |
Learners switch to L1 for:
The role of L1 in the ELT classroom has been debated for over a century:
| Position | Argument | Associated with |
|---|---|---|
| English-only | Maximum L2 exposure drives acquisition; L1 use is a crutch | Audiolingual Method, Direct Method, strong CLT |
| Judicious L1 use | Strategic L1 use saves time, reduces anxiety, and supports comprehension, but should be principled and limited | Atkinson (1987), Cook (2001), Nation (2003) |
| Translanguaging | Bilinguals have one integrated linguistic repertoire; separating languages is artificial | Garcia & Wei (2014). See Translanguaging |
The current consensus in applied linguistics leans toward principled L1 use: the L1 is a resource, not a problem, but its use should be strategic and deliberate rather than a default. Research (e.g., Macaro 2009) suggests that teachers who plan their L1 use achieve better outcomes than those who either ban it entirely or use it unthinkingly.
The relationship between these two concepts is debated. See Translanguaging for the full discussion. Briefly:
In practice, the observable behavior is often the same; the theoretical framing differs.