Reference Chains
Reference chains are sequences of referring expressions that track an entity through a text, maintaining the reader's awareness of who or what is being discussed. They are a primary mechanism of textual Cohesion and a key area of L2 writing difficulty.
How Reference Chains Work
A reference chain introduces an entity and then refers back (or forward) to it using different linguistic forms:
A young doctor arrived at the clinic. She examined the patient carefully. The physician then prescribed medication. Dr Nguyen signed the prescription and left.
The chain a young doctor → she → the physician → Dr Nguyen tracks a single entity through four sentences. Each link in the chain must be recoverable — the reader must be able to identify that all four expressions refer to the same person.
Halliday and Hasan's Reference System
Halliday and Hasan (1976) identified reference as one of five cohesive devices (alongside substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion). They distinguished:
- Anaphoric reference — referring back to a previously mentioned entity (The teacher spoke. She was clear.)
- Cataphoric reference — referring forward to an entity not yet introduced (Before she spoke, the teacher checked her notes.)
- Exophoric reference — referring to something outside the text (Look at that)
Reference chains operate primarily through anaphoric reference, building identity chains where all links refer to the same entity.
Types of Referring Expressions
| Expression type | Example | Function in chain |
|---|---|---|
| Full noun phrase | a young doctor | Introduces or reintroduces an entity |
| Pronoun | she, it, they | Maintains reference when identity is clear |
| Definite NP | the doctor | Re-identifies with shared knowledge |
| Demonstrative | this approach | Points back with evaluative force |
| Proper noun | Dr Nguyen | Specifies unique identity |
| Zero anaphora | (Ø) then left | Ellipsis of subject in coordinate clauses |
Skilled writers vary referring expressions to avoid monotonous repetition while maintaining clarity. The choice between pronoun, full NP, and synonym depends on distance from the last mention, number of competing referents, and discourse prominence.
Chain Types (Halliday & Hasan 1985)
- Identity chains — all links refer to the same entity (co-referential)
- Similarity chains — links share semantic features but are not co-referential (doctor... nurse... surgeon)
Identity chains carry the main topic thread; similarity chains build the lexical field.
L2 Writing Difficulties
Reference chains are a common area of error for L2 writers:
- Ambiguous pronoun reference — The teacher told the student that she needed to improve (who?)
- Overuse of full NPs — repeating the government in every sentence instead of switching to it or they
- Underuse of synonyms and superordinates — limited vocabulary for varied reference
- L1 transfer — some languages (Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese) permit more extensive zero anaphora than English, leading to missing subjects
Teaching reference chains explicitly — through text analysis, guided rewriting, and focused editing — improves both cohesion and readability in L2 writing.
Key References
- Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. Longman.
- Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1985). Language, Context, and Text. Deakin University Press.
- Tanskanen, S.-K. (2006). Collaborating towards Coherence: Lexical Cohesion in English Discourse. John Benjamins.