Consciousness-Raising
A pedagogical approach in which learners analyse language data to develop explicit knowledge of linguistic features. Crucially, consciousness-raising (CR) is not practice — the goal is understanding a rule, not producing the target structure in communicative output. The distinction matters: CR targets explicit knowledge as an end in itself, on the premise that explicit awareness can facilitate subsequent Noticing of the feature in input.
Origins
Rod Ellis (1991, 1992, 2002) developed the theoretical framework for CR tasks, drawing on the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge in SLA. Ellis argued that while Form-Focused Instruction broadly encompasses any attempt to draw learners' attention to form, CR represents a specific type: one that aims to develop declarative knowledge about language rather than procedural ability to use it.
Fotos & Ellis (1991) compared CR tasks with direct grammar explanation and found both effective in promoting understanding of grammatical rules on grammaticality judgement tests — but CR tasks had the added benefit of generating communicative interaction during the task itself.
Defining Features of CR Tasks
Ellis (2002) specified that a CR task must:
- Provide L2 data for learners to analyse (not simply present a rule)
- Require learners to perform operations on the data — identifying patterns, comparing forms, formulating rules
- Target explicit understanding as the outcome — the learner should arrive at an explicit representation of the linguistic property
- Not require production of the target structure in communicative use
CR vs Practice
| Feature | Consciousness-Raising | Practice |
|---|---|---|
| Goal | Explicit understanding of a rule | Ability to produce the structure |
| Learner role | Language analyst | Language user |
| Success criterion | Correct rule formulation | Accurate production |
| Knowledge type | Explicit/declarative | Implicit/procedural |
| Communicative output | Not required | Required |
Relationship to Other Concepts
- Noticing (Schmidt 1990): CR aims to prime learners to notice target features in subsequent input. Explicit knowledge acts as a "cue" that directs attention
- Focus on Form (Long 1991): CR is one mechanism for drawing attention to form during meaning-focused activity
- Guided Discovery: Shares the inductive orientation — learners discover rules from data rather than receiving them — but guided discovery typically expects learners to apply the rule immediately, while CR does not
- Inductive and Deductive Teaching: CR tasks are inherently inductive; learners move from data to generalisation
Teaching Implications
CR tasks work well for structures that are complex, non-salient in input, or resistant to instruction through practice alone. They are particularly suited to advanced learners who can engage in metalinguistic analysis, though simplified CR tasks (with L1 support) can work at lower levels. The key pedagogical insight is that not all grammar work needs to result in immediate production — sometimes understanding is a legitimate and sufficient goal.