Communication Strategies
Techniques that language users deploy to overcome breakdowns, gaps, or difficulties in communication. In ELT, communication strategies (CSs) are a component of strategic competence within models of communicative competence and a key factor in developing fluency.
Definition
Dörnyei and Scott (1997, p. 179) define communication strategies as "every potentially intentional attempt to cope with any language-related problem of which the speaker is aware during the course of communication." The concept originated in L1 communication research but became central to SLA through the work of Tarone (1977), Færch and Kasper (1983), and Canale and Swain (1980).
Taxonomies
Tarone (1977) — Interactional View
CSs are mutual attempts to agree on meaning when structures are inadequate:
| Strategy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Paraphrase | Expressing meaning in alternative ways | "the thing you use to cut paper" for "scissors" |
| Approximation | Using a near-synonym or superordinate | "animal" for "rabbit" |
| Word coinage | Creating a new word | "air-ball" for "balloon" |
| Circumlocution | Describing or defining the target item | "the place where you borrow books" for "library" |
| Appeal for assistance | Asking the interlocutor for help | "What do you call it?" |
| Mime/gesture | Non-verbal communication | Pointing, acting out |
| Avoidance | Abandoning or changing the topic | Switching to a different topic |
| Language switch | Using L1 word or phrase | Inserting a word from the first language |
Færch and Kasper (1983) — Psycholinguistic View
CSs are mental plans activated when the original plan fails:
- Achievement strategies: The learner tries to solve the problem (circumlocution, approximation, restructuring, cooperative strategies)
- Reduction strategies: The learner reduces the communicative goal (topic avoidance, message abandonment, semantic avoidance)
Dörnyei and Scott (1997) — Comprehensive Taxonomy
The most detailed classification, identifying 33 strategies in three categories:
- Direct strategies: Provide an alternative plan to convey meaning (circumlocution, approximation, all-purpose words like "thing", mime, word coinage)
- Indirect strategies: Maintain the channel of communication without directly addressing the gap (fillers/hesitation devices, repetition, verbal strategy markers like "I mean")
- Interactional strategies: Involve the interlocutor in resolving the problem (appeal for help, comprehension checks, meaning negotiation, requests for clarification)
The Teachability Debate
A significant debate exists about whether CSs should be explicitly taught:
Pro-teaching (Dörnyei 1995; Cohen 1998):
- L2 learners may not transfer L1 strategies automatically
- Explicit strategy training can raise awareness and expand repertoire
- Circumlocution and paraphrase are particularly trainable and useful
- Strategy training is especially valuable at lower levels where lexical gaps are frequent
Anti-teaching (Bialystok 1990; Kellerman 1991):
- CSs are based on general cognitive processes, not language-specific knowledge
- "Don't teach strategies — teach language" (Kellerman's position)
- L1 strategies transfer automatically; the problem is insufficient L2 proficiency
- Teaching time is better spent expanding the learner's linguistic resources
The current consensus (Dörnyei & Scott, 1997; Nakatani, 2005) leans toward a balanced position: strategy instruction is beneficial alongside language teaching, particularly for circumlocution, paraphrase, time-buying devices, and interactional strategies.
Why It Matters for ELT
- Bridges the gap: Learners always have communicative needs beyond their current proficiency; CSs keep communication going
- Develops fluency: Time-buying devices (fillers, repetition) prevent breakdown and maintain conversational flow
- Builds confidence: Knowing how to manage communication problems reduces anxiety
- Exam preparation: In speaking exams (including IELTS), strategic competence contributes to fluency scores — appropriate use of fillers and circumlocution is valued over silence
- Autonomy: Learners with a CS repertoire can function in communicative situations beyond the classroom
Teaching Communication Strategies
Practical activities:
- Describe and draw: One student describes, the other draws — forces circumlocution
- Taboo: Describing a word without using certain related words
- Spot the strategy: Students identify CSs in recorded conversations
- Communication games: Information gaps where lexical resources are intentionally limited
- Filler practice: Explicitly teaching and practising time-buying expressions ("Well, let me think...", "That's an interesting question...")
Key References
- Dörnyei, Z. & Scott, M.L. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definitions and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47(1), 173–210.
- Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious communication strategies in interlanguage. In H.D. Brown et al. (Eds.), On TESOL '77. TESOL.
- Færch, C. & Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. Longman.
- Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1–47.
- Nakatani, Y. (2005). The effects of awareness-raising training on oral communication strategy use. Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 76–91.
- Dörnyei, Z. (1995). On the teachability of communication strategies. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 55–85.
See Also
- communicative competence — the broader framework within which strategic competence sits
- Fluency — CSs directly support fluent communication
- Negotiation of Meaning — interactional CSs overlap with negotiation work
- CLT — the methodological context that values strategic competence