Inner Outer and Expanding Circle

Braj Kachru's (1985) Three Circles model is the most influential framework for describing the global spread of English. It classifies countries according to how English functions in each society.

The Three Circles

Inner Circle (Norm-providing)

Countries where English is the primary language of the majority population, used in all domains. These countries historically set the norms for "correct" English.

Examples: United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland

Outer Circle (Norm-developing)

Countries where English has an official or institutional role alongside other languages, typically due to British or American colonial history. These countries are developing their own norms and standards of English.

Examples: India, Singapore, Nigeria, Kenya, Malaysia, Philippines, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Hong Kong

Expanding Circle (Norm-dependent)

Countries where English is learned as a foreign language with no colonial history of English use. English serves international communication purposes.

Examples: China, Japan, South Korea, Brazil, Russia, Vietnam, Thailand, Germany, France, Turkey

Kachru's Key Arguments

• The Outer and Expanding Circles contain far more English speakers than the Inner Circle
• Outer Circle varieties (Indian English, Singaporean English, Nigerian English) are legitimate, rule-governed systems, not defective imitations of British or American English
• English belongs to all its users, not just Inner Circle speakers
• The model challenges native-speaker ownership of English

Criticisms

Despite its influence, the model has significant limitations:

1. Static and nation-based — It assigns entire countries to single circles, ignoring variation within countries. A university professor in Vietnam may use English daily; a farmer may not use it at all.
2. Unclear boundaries — Some countries resist classification. South Africa has both Inner and Outer Circle characteristics. The Netherlands and Scandinavian countries have near-native English use but belong to the Expanding Circle.
3. Ignores individual variation — Proficiency and use vary enormously within any country.
4. Assumes national homogeneity — Obscures multilingual complexity within nations.
5. Binary native/non-native — Reinforces the native speaker ideal that Kachru himself critiqued.
6. Does not account for ELF — Mollin (2006) argued the model fails to capture English as a Lingua Franca use between Outer and Expanding Circle speakers, where neither party uses Inner Circle norms.

Alternative Models

• Modiano's (1999) centripetal circles — places proficient speakers of English (regardless of L1) at the centre
• Graddol's (2006) concentric circles of English speakers — estimates 2 billion total English users, with L2 speakers vastly outnumbering L1
• ELF perspective — shifts focus from nation-based categories to actual communicative practices. See ELF.

Relevance to ELT

• The model provides useful shorthand for discussing English's global roles
• It challenges the assumption that Inner Circle norms are the only teaching targets
• Teachers in Expanding Circle countries (like Vietnam) should consider whether Inner Circle norms, Outer Circle models, or ELF principles best serve their learners' actual communication needs
• Materials should expose learners to varieties from all three circles